Outrage
Despite the vociferous objections of many Choctaw communities, the United States moved to enforce the terms of the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek in early 1831. Under this agreement, the Choctaw Nation ceded 11 million acres of land in Mississippi for 15 millions acres of federally reserved land in Indian Territory--present day Oklahoma. The first removals began in 1831, with small bands of Choctaw forced to march westward under the watchful eye of armed American soldiers. Those who remained continued to voice their objections, arguing that the delegation of chiefs who had signed the treaty did not speak for the nation as a whole. The American government maintained that the treaty was legal on the grounds that those Choctaw leaders present at the original summit were invited as representatives of the entire nation and were therefore empowered to make such a decision. Outrage spread through the Choctaw Nation like an epidemic as more and more communities were told to prepare to be relocated.
The First Removals
Many simply refused to abandon their homes, while thousands more saw little choice but to acquiesce--particularly when faced with an armed contingent of American soldiers determined to enforce the treaty. Those unwilling to vacate their lands took refuge in the woods and lived in small, isolated bands. Between 1831 and 1833, most of the Choctaw communities in Mississippi were relocated to reservation lands in Indian Territory. At first, they were moved out in small groups of 100 to 500 individuals. However, these groups increased in size to up to 4,000. Conditions during this mass relocation were harsh. Food and blankets were in short supply and poor housing conditions allowed for the introduction of disease. In winter, the Choctaw faced the scourge of pneumonia while the summer brought cholera. Compounding these hardships were bands of armed marauders who would descend upon the Choctaw campsites and absconded with what few supplies they possessed. The American soldiers tasked with escorting the refugees west simply stood by as these predations occurred.
Violations of Peace
The Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek provided for the protection of the Choctaw and their property during the proposed migration westward and enumerated the amount of land that had been set aside for their use. Additionally, the Indian Removal Act specifically stated that any native tribe agreeing to relocate must be fully protected and provided for during the course of their migration. However, while disease, the weather, and raiding parties preyed on the unarmed Choctaw, their American escorts took little notice.
Starting Over
Having lost almost a quarter of their population due to disease and the elements, the Choctaw arrived in Oklahoma and began the rebuilding process. In 1834, the lay cultural historian George Catlin lived among this resilient tribe and recorded his observations on their condition. Fully aware of the circumstances surrounding their relocation to Oklahoma, Catlin noted that the Choctaw Nation had managed to persevere despite overwhelming adversity. In his journals, Catlin often lamented the inevitable fading away of many of the tribes he lived among. He chronicled as many aspects of their daily lives as he was a witness to so he could provide the world with a record of these unique cultures. As Catlin observed, the Choctaw Nation proved to be resilient and endures today with communities in Oklahoma and Mississippi.
Mark M. Boatner III, Encyclopedia of the American Revolution. (Mechanicsburg: Stackpole Books, 1994).
Mark C Carnes, Ed. U.S. History. (New York: MacMillan Library Reference, 1998).
Peter Matthiessen, ed. George Catlin: North American Indians. (New York: Penguin Group, 1989).
Marilyn Miller and Martin Faux, American History Desk Reference. (New York: MacMillan, 1997).
Carl Waldman, Atlas of the North American Indian. (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
Carl Waldman, Encyclopedia of Native Tribes. (New York: Checkmark Books, 2006).
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