Pope` in the Ascendancy
Rebellion Against Spain
Sep 21, 2008 Jeffrey R Gudzune
In his quest to preserve the traditions of his people, the Tewa shaman Pope` found a central issue around which the indigenous tribes of New Mexico could rally--religious expression. Through a series of secret meetings, Pope` managed to unify close to a dozen of the pueblos into an effective fighting force and led them in a determined resistance against the oppression of Spanish missionaries. How he did this depended very much on who he was and what he represented to his people. Pope` was both a medicine man and a priest, a shaman of the Kachina religion who had been forced to practice his profession in secret to avoid the scrutiny of Spanish officials. When he was arrested and publicly punished for performing a traditional healing ceremony, he began a campaign to organize the pueblos into a resistance movement.
Little is known about the early life of this visionary leader, and there has been much historical speculation that has produced conflicting and often inaccurate generalizations. What is known is that Pope` was born in the Tewa pueblo of San Juan (located along the eastern bank of the Rio Grande) around the year 1620. Just a decade before his birth, the conquistador Juan de Onate had cemented Spain’s control over the pueblos of New Mexico and brought the respective tribes to heel with harsh tactics and brutal retribution. In the name of God, he banned paganism among the tribes and dispatched missionaries to save the souls of the natives. Despite Spain’s decree requiring natives in the surrounding pueblos to abandon their traditional religious practices, the Tewa continued to hold secret ceremonies in underground chambers.
Pope` became a shaman of the Kachina religion, a system of beliefs among several pueblo tribes that holds that supernatural forces are ever present and can even interfere in the lives of mortals. Seeing the dolls used in Kachina ceremonies as examples of idol worship, the Spanish missionaries brought pressure on the pueblos to cease the public expression of this religion. While he heeded the prohibition on the public expression of indigenous ceremonies, there were times when Pope` was forced to practice his profession in the open. This was the case when he was needed to perform a healing ceremony, which could not be effectively done in the underground kiva. When he gained the attention of missionary officials, who felt his defiance was an assault on Catholicism, Pope` was subject to arrest.
In 1675, he was arrested again for practicing Kachina and was publicly flogged by missionary officials as a chastisement. This attack on his person only strengthened his resolve and Pope` began to rally his fellow religious leaders against missionary efforts. In August of 1680, Pope` dispatched several Tewa warriors as emissaries to the surrounding pueblo tribes. The Tiwa, Towa, Keres, Hopi, and the Zuni all responded by joining Pope` in an alliance against the Spanish. The time for open rebellion was determined by a special code. Each one of the emissaries carried with him a cord tied into eleven knots, symbolizing that the time to strike would be August 11th. At this time, there were several pueblo leaders who had indeed converted to Catholicism and were loyal to the Spanish. Pope` became aware of the possibility that some of the members of his new alliance might betray him. To those tribal leaders who were known converts, Pope` sent chords tied into thirteen knots. As expected, the converts informed Spanish officials in Santa Fe to expect a revolt on August 13th. They were too late. On August 11th, Pope` and his army struck out in open rebellion. They attacked Spanish farms, burned missions, and killed any who dared resist them. The Pueblo Revolt was at hand.
Marck C Carnes, Ed. U.S. History. (New York: MacMillan Library Reference, 1998).
Carl Waldman, Atlas of the North American Indians. (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
Carl Waldman, Encyclopedia of Native American Tribes. (New York: Checkmark Books, 2006).
David M. Jones and Brian L. Molyneaux. Mythology of the Native American Nations. (London: Hermes Press, 2006).
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