Who was Sacagawea and why do we know so much...yet so little about her? Was she simply along for the ride, or did she contribute more to the opening of the west
Sacagawea: Guide to the West
Jeffrey R Gudzune, MA
Though no portrait was taken during her lifetime, there are more images of Sacagawea than any other female figure in American History. There is much that is still unknown about the Shoshoni guide to the Corps of Discovery, and much that has been recently reinterpreted. Even her name has undergone a change of interpretation. When it first appeared in print, the spelling was Sacagawea—which in the language of the Hidatsa (the people with whom she was living) means “bird woman.” However, her name has also been spelled with a j, which in Shoshoni means “boat launcher.” The confusion comes from the journals of Lewis and Clark, who were uncertain as to the proper spelling and used both letters interchangeably. The 1814 edition of the journals of Meriwether Lewis show her name spelled with the hard g; and this has been the most commonly accepted form. Some historians have argued that Sacagawea was a guide to Lewis and Clark as they explored western territories of the United States. Others have claimed that she was simply along for the ride. The truth lies somewhere in the middle. While she was not taken into the expedition at her own insistence, she proved to be a valuable interpreter and diplomat—especially when it came to first contact situations with some of the more hostile western Indian nations. It is only through a thorough examination of her life that an accurate picture of this remarkable woman can be formed.
Though there is still uncertainty as to the exact year of her birth, it is believed that Sacagawea was born around 1790 in the Rocky Mountain region. Her people, the Shoshoni, were well known for their military prowess and had once dominated surrounding nations with their mounted cavalry. However, by the time of Sacagawea’s birth, the Shoshoni were under constant raid from several fronts. Their most dangerous opponent was the Hidatsa nation, which had already seriously encroached on Shoshoni territory. In 1800, when she was ten years old, Sacagawea was abducted by a Hidatsa war party while fishing along the Missouri River. She remained with her captors until she was purchased by a French-Canadian trader named Toussaint Charbonneau at the age of fourteen. She soon became his wife. How then did this young woman become a part of America’s quest for expansion?
When Lewis and Clark first encountered Sacagawea she was traveling with Charbonneau along the Missouri River—their exact location was somewhere near present day Washburn, North Dakota. After traversing nearly 1600 miles and experiencing the loss of one member of the expedition due to ill health, Lewis and Clark sought a respite among the Mandan; a people who populated the banks of the Missouri. By this time, however, an outbreak small pox had caused many of the Mandan towns to fall into disrepair. On October 24, 1804, Clark recorded in his journal that negotiations between the Americans and the Mandans began “with great cordiality and ceremony.” The captains were optimistic, yet cautious.
When he heard of the presence of the American expedition, Toussaint Charbonneau saw an opportunity to make a profit. He rushed to the Mandan villages and immediately offered his services as an interpreter. At first, Lewis and Clark rebuffed Charbonneau’s offer—they already possessed an interpreter in the personage of another French-Canadian named Rene Jessaume. Charbonneau remained undaunted and insisted that the expedition could profit from Sacagawea’s Shoshoni heritage. The Shoshoni were still well regarded for their horses, horses that would be useful in the expedition’s travels. Finally, the captains gave their assent and hired Charbonneau as an interpreter.
There is much speculation as to why the captains chose to engage Charbonneau. After all, he had originally refused to perform the rudimentary duties of the other members of the expedition and insisted on special privileges. Furthermore, he told the captains that should he chose to withdraw from the expedition they would be required to provide him with the necessary supplies for the journey in addition to his negotiated recompense. Naturally, they sent him packing. A few days later, Charbonneau returned and agreed to accept the original terms. Charbonneau’s reasons for returning were simple—he wanted money. However, Lewis and Clark could have easily done without the troublesome French-Canadian. The reason they agreed to take him into the Corps of Discovery was because they knew Sacagawea would be more valuable as a translator than Charbonneau. Even though they engaged Charbonneau in the capacity of the translator, it was clear that Sacagawea would be doing most of the work.
When he first met Charbonneau, Lewis entertained serious doubts as to his worth with regards to the expedition. However, he soon gained a respect for Sacagawea and equated her valor and fortitude with that of the men under his command. While unfamiliar with most of the terrain on the journey, she was knowledgeable of certain landmarks that she used to point the captains in the right direction when they were uncertain as to the exact route. She also joined in the search for food and managed to produce medicinal routes that were more effective, and far less destructive, than the medicine brought on the trip. In addition to her contributions to the exploration of the west, Sacagawea also bore the hardships of travel as well as any of the Americans. What made her perseverance even more astounding was the fact that when she began her service with the Corps of Discovery she was six months pregnant.
Sacagawea gave birth to a boy whom she named Jean Baptiste. Clark was present at the birth and noted in his journal how difficult it was for the young Shoshoni. He even wrote that he feared she would not survive the process. However, she recovered and was active in helping the expedition prepare for their next move. Clark became so enamored with the child that he soon nicknamed him “ Little Pomp.”
The Corps of Discovery remained with the Mandans until April of 1805. After passing a harsh winter with their new allies, they continued moving westward into present day Montana. Along the way, the Americans encountered a new threat to their continued prosperity. The Mandans had warned of a creature of such size and strength that it would take many warriors to dispatch it. This terrifying new enemy was the Grizzly Bear and Lewis and Clark seriously underestimated its ferocity.
Sacagawea was essential to the diplomatic efforts of the Corps of Discovery. Though she did not speak English, she was fluent in the language of her people and the language of her captors, the Hidatsa. She would translate to Charbonneau, who would then speak the words in French to Rene Jessaume, who would in turn translate the words into English for the captains. In addition to providing translation during meetings with Indian nations, Sacagawea also assisted Lewis and Clark in compiling a dictionary of the Hidatsa language for President Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson was not only interested in staking a claim throughout the territory his government had acquired from France, but also wanted to have a record of as many Indian language groups as was possible. Though she did not write it herself, Sacagawea assisted in the first written translation of the Hidatsa and Mandan languages.
She further proved her abilities when the men were unable to locate sufficient food during the journey. Throughout the months of April, May, and June, the Americans encountered a serious shortage of provisions and wild game. Though they were on the lookout, they were unable to locate enough to provide for the entire expedition. On several occasions when no animals could be trapped or killed, Sacagawea dup for roots and came up with enough food to prepare a simple, yet satisfying, feast for party.
During a sudden storm that threatened to dash the expedition’s flotilla along the Missouri River, Sacagawea managed to save essential provisions that were nearly washed overboard. Of Charbonneau, Lewis said that he was “a man of no particular merit.” However, “ the Indian woman, to whom I ascribe equal fortitude and resolution with any person on board at the time of the accident,” saved the day and proved herself a person of sufficient character and strength to be recognized by the leadership of the Corps of Discovery. The men, many of whom had entertained their own prejudices before their first encounter with the Shoshoni woman, soon gained an equal respect for her. This much is evident in the gesture made by Meriwether Lewis on May 20, 1805. Throughout the expedition, Lewis and Clark immortalized members of the Corps of Discovery by naming newly discovered landmarks after them. Among the people so honored were President Jefferson, Secretary of State James Madison, Treasury Secretary Gallatin, Lewis, Clark, and Sacagawea—after whom a tributary of the Musselshell River was named.
Although Charbonneau proved himself to be utterly useless, Sacagawea endured more hardships and was more productive than any other member of the Corps of Discovery. She endured the pain of a difficult childbirth, experienced the harsh winter among the Mandans, pulled medicinal roots from the ground, gathered food, and risked her life along with the Americans to return to her people. In July of 1805, Sacagawea noticed familiar landmarks and immediately realized that the expedition had finally reached Shoshoni territory. When she announced this, it brought joy to the members of the expedition. They had come far and were in need of rest. On August 9, 1805, the Corps of Discovery spotted a young Shoshoni on horseback. The scout called out “tabbabone,” which means “stranger” in the Shoshoni language. Sacagawea had educated Lewis as to certain phrases and words that would be useful in his efforts to open a dialogue with the Shoshoni. As Lewis approached the scout, he abruptly rushed off to warn his people that the white men had arrived. The following morning, Lewis dispatched an emissary to follow the scout and try to reestablish communication with the Shoshoni. Lewis realized his mistake and asked Sacagawea to accompany the Americans on their next effort to establish contact with the Shoshoni.
On August 13, 1805, Lewis and several companions encountered a party consisting of two Shoshoni women and one young male scout. The male Shoshoni withdrew as a precautionary move, but the women remained as Lewis approached. He uttered the word “tabbabone” and gave the women the gifts he had brought with him. The group was forthwith brought to a Shoshoni village under the leadership of a man named Cameahwait, whom Sacagawea immediately recognized as her own brother. This was altogether fortunate for Lewis and Clark. In their dealings with the Shoshoni leadership, they included Sacagawea. She spoke in her native Shoshoni and then repeated everything to Charbonneau in Hidatsa, who then spoke French to American Private Frances Labiche, who in turn repeated his words to Lewis in English. A pact of friendship and mutual support was sealed on August 17, and Chief Cameahwait agreed to sell the Corps of Discovery all the horses that they would require.
Surprisingly, even though she had been reunited with her family, Sacagawea elected to continue her service with the Corps of Discovery. In September of 1805, the expedition encountered a new tribe, the Salish. Once again, Sacagawea was indispensable in establishing relations with these people. The Salish agreed to sell supplies and horses for the expedition and welcomed the Americans and their Shoshoni guide into their community. Sacagawea remained with the Corps of Discovery until the very end of the expedition. On August 17, 1806, Lewis wrote in his journal that Charbonneau and Sacagawea would be leaving the party as it returned to the Mandan villages. Charbonneau remained with the Mandans for the rest of his life, Sacagawea always at his side. In 1812, after giving birth to a daughter, she died of fever while in South Dakota. After Sacagawea’s death, William Clark assumed the guardianship of Jean Baptiste Charbonneau. He was educated in St. Louis, traveled throughout Europe, served as a judge in California, and died at 66 of pneumonia.
The only record of Sacagawea’s contribution to the Corps of Discovery was kept by Lewis and Clark in their personal diaries of the expedition. What historians have argued about her life, whether it is factual or mere sensationalism, comes from these journals. Looking at her through the eyes of the two Americans who knew her best it is easy to understand that she was not simply “along for the ride,” as a few have tried to claim. While she wasn’t the mythical figure that some have tried to portray her as, she was nonetheless a key figure in the expedition. She was a real person…she was human and had her moments of triumph as well as failure. The voluminous discourses on the Corps of Discovery mention her as a guide, but contemporary authors have tried to elevate her to almost mythic status. While this personification of this amazing woman may seem reasonable, given the circumstances, it does not do justice to her true value. Sacagawea is perhaps the most recognizable female historical figure in American history not because she was the only woman on this journey, but because she was such an extraordinary individual. Her contribution to the opening of the west cannot be dismissed. While Lewis and Clark may have led the way, a fourteen-year-old Shoshoni girl became the true spirit of the Corps of Discovery.
Bibliography
Stephen E Ambrose, Undaunted Courage: Meriwether Lewis, Thomas Jefferson, and the
Opening of the American West. (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1996).
Dayton Duncan and Ken Burns, Lewis and Clark: An Illustrated History. (New York:
Alfred A Knopf, 1997).
Landon Y. Jones, ed., The Essential Lewis and Clark. (New York: Echo Press, 2000).
David Lavender, The Way to the Western Sea: Lewis and Clark Across the Continent.
(New York: Harper and Row, 1988).
