Between 1831 and 1833, the Choctaw Nation endured a massive migration to reservation lands in Indian Territory--present day Oklahoma. Suffering from a lack of supplies, the harshness of winter, rampant banditry, and the apathy of their American escorts, the Choctaw eventually resettled and reorganized. 1831 also saw the relocation of many other native tribes, representing a wave of resettlements. Facing a dwindling frontier, these tribes accepted lands in Indian Territory. Much like the Choctaw, they too would face the environmental hardships and predations of westward migration. Upon reaching their designated resettlement areas, they would also be forced to start anew.
No Other Choice
The reasons for accepting relocation were as diverse as the tribes themselves. Many Indian leaders saw the rapid growth and outward expansion of the United States as a threat to their existence. Some tribes still harbored painful memories of previous skirmishes and wars with American soldiers--whose conduct in battle often bordered on brutal. Some saw only greed in the eyes of the pioneers who encroached upon their lands. Others viewed the federal government’s control over trade as an effort to make native tribes financially dependent on the United States. When considering these possibilities, relocation seemed preferable to absorption.
Shawnee Resettlement
After years of resistance, the Shawnee finally ceded all of their land holdings in Ohio in 1831. Most of the tribe accepted relocation and migrated west, reorganizing in Oklahoma. When George Catlin encountered the tribe in 1833, he noted with chagrin the sad state of affairs for the Shawnee Nation. Only 1200 Shawnee resettled in Oklahoma, and of that number most lived in abject poverty. Catlin wrote that the tribe that had produced Tecumseh had “been reduced to poverty and absolute want” by relocation and the effects of rampant alcohol abuse. Ending his observations with a note of hope, Catlin believed it possible for the Shawnee to survive. Reorganizing, the Shawnee did endure and remain to this day. The small bands of Shawnee who remained in Ohio, steadfastly refusing to vacate their lands, also reorganized in a distant branch of the greater Shawnee Nation--one formally recognized by the United States in 1980.
Huron and Kickapoo
In 1832, the Huron of Ohio gave up their lands and moved west, eventually resettling in northeastern Oklahoma. That same year, the Kickapoo of Illinois moved temporarily to Missouri and then finally into Kansas. Before their migration, Catlin spent time among the Kickapoo. Of the 800 people that held out on their lands in Illinois, Catlin noted that most were poor and suffering from the effects of alcoholism. Their nation was broken after years of frequent migrations and stood on the brink of extinction. However, all hope was not lost. Under the leadership of Kee-an-ne-kuk, the Kickapoo rebounded and found a way to endure in their new surroundings. Among the other bands of Kickapoo that migrated west, many settled in Texas and Mexico. They exist today as branches of the greater Kickapoo Nation, having endured their own struggle to survive and emerged victorious.
Resettlement was difficult for these tribes and it would be years before they were able to fully rebuild their way of life. However, the determination and resourcefulness that first motivated George Catlin to undertake his journey of discovery burned within the hearts and bodies of these tribes and they endured.
Sources:
Mark M. Boatner III, Encyclopedia of the American Revolution. (Mechanicsburg: Stackpole Books, 1994).
Mark C Carnes, Ed. U.S. History. (New York: MacMillan Library Reference, 1998).
Peter Matthiessen, ed. George Catlin: North American Indians. (New York: Penguin Group, 1989).
Marilyn Miller and Martin Faux, American History Desk Reference. (New York: MacMillan, 1997).
Carl Waldman, Atlas of the North American Indian. (New York: Checkmark Books, 2000).
Carl Waldman, Encyclopedia of Native Tribes. (New York: Checkmark Books, 2006).
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